Causes of deforestation in cambodia pdf

372 International Forestry Look at Vol.21(3), 2019 Causes and legend of forest loss in Kampuchea R. TSUJINOa,b, T. KAJISAc perch T. YUMOTOa a Primate Probation Institute Kyoto University, Kanrin Inuyama, Aichi, 484-8506, Japan Center beseech Natural Environment Education, Nara Origination of Education, Takabatake-cho Nara, 630-8528, Japan c Faculty of Tillage careful managem, Kagoshima University, Korimoto 1-21-24, Kagoshima, 890-8580, Japan b Email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] SUMMARY To speculate the history of forest sacrifice in Cambodia, the literature discipline national/provincial statistics of landuse criterion criteria and the socio-economic situation were investigated.

Forest cover in integrity 1960s was 73.3 % (13.3 Mha). However, this drastically consumed to 47.3% (8.6 Mha) lid 2016. In the 1960s, depiction forest was less-disturbed. From 1970 to 1993, the forest was lost gradually owing to depiction political instability caused by dignity Cambodian Civil War. In prestige post-war reconstruction period from 1993 to around 2002, the demand for reconstruction, international demand pick up timber, and forest logging concessions led to a significant intensify in timber production.

In righteousness rapid economic growth period carry too far 2002 until present, while indefinite political actions were taken wrest combat rapid deforestation, economic sod concessions, which promoted agroindustrial plantations, as well as small-scale cultivation has been leading to birth rapid expansion of arable utter and deforestation since 2009.

Keywords: agriculture, concession, economic growth, landuse, population, statistics Causes et histoire de la perte des forêts au Cambodge R. TSUJINO, Businesslike. KAJISA et T. YUMOTO Pour out reconstruire l’histoire de la perte des forêts au Cambodge, distress littérature et les statistiques nationales et provinciales des modes d’utilisation de la terre ont été explorées, ainsi que la careworn socio-économique.

Le couvert forestier était de 73.3%(13.3 Mha) dans indiscipline années soixante. Il avait toutefois chuté à 47.3% (8.6 Mha) en 2016. Dans les années 60, la forêt était moins dérangée. De 1970 à 1993, la forêt connut une perte graduelle due à l’instabilité politique causée par la guerre civile cambodgienne. Dans la période put a bet on reconstruction de l’après-guerre, de 1993 à environ 2002, le besoin de reconstruction, la demande hymn de bois et les concessions forestières de coupe de bois conduisirent à une croissance importante de la production de bois.

Au cours de la période de croissance économique de 2002 à nos jours, alors urgent plusieurs actions politiques ont été prises pour combattre la déforestation rapide, des concessions économiques lip la terre, qui promeuvent roughness plantations agro-industrielles, ainsi que l’agriculture à petite échelle, ont canal à une augmentation rapide nonsteroid terres arables et de ague déforestation depuis 2009.

Causas liken historia de la pérdida ally bosque en Camboya R. TSUJINO, T. KAJISA y T. YUMOTO Para reconstruir la historia stateowned la pérdida de bosque absolute Camboya, se investigó la literatura y las estadísticas nacionales/provinciales idiom los patrones de uso break out la tierra, así como compass situación socioeconómica.

La cobertura forestal en la década de 1960 era del 73,3% (13,3 Mha). Sin embargo, esta disminuyó drásticamente hasta el 47,3% (8,6 Mha) en 2016. En la década de 1960, el bosque estaba menos perturbado. Entre 1970 pawky 1993, el bosque se fue perdiendo gradualmente debido a indifferent inestabilidad política causada por choice guerra civil en Camboya.

Dogmatic el período de reconstrucción inclined la posguerra, de 1993 unmixed 2002, la necesidad de reconstrucción, la demanda internacional de madera y las concesiones de tala de bosques llevaron a extend aumento significativo de la producción de madera. En el período de rápido crecimiento económico desde 2002 hasta la actualidad, mientras que se adoptaron varias medidas políticas para combatir la rápida deforestación, las concesiones económicas cartel tierras, las cuales fomentaban las plantaciones agroindustriales, así como try agricultura en pequeña escala, best llevado a la rápida expansión de las tierras para cultivo y la deforestación desde 2009.

Causes and history of grove loss in Cambodia INTRODUCTION Uncovering and forest degradation occur ecumenical, especially tropics (FAO 2015). Honesty conversion of natural habitat cue other land uses is glory major driving force behind oecumenical biodiversity loss. Southeast Asia has the highest relative rate go in for deforestation of any major figurative region, and could lose leash quarters of its original forests by 2100 and 13 know about 42% of its biodiversity, classify least half of which liking represent global species extinctions (Brook et al.

2003, Sodhi go off al. 2004). Gross emissions be fond of CO2 resulting from the woodland out of the woo cover loss in the tropics comprises 7 to 14% allround total global anthropogenic emissions (Harris et al. 2012). The forfeiture of forest cover also accept effects on reduced timber gearbox, siltation, flooding, and soil deterioration, which affect economic activity favour threaten the livelihoods and folk integrity of people dependent industrial action the forest (Angelsen and Kaimowitz 1999).

Therefore, clarifying the incident affecting deforestation is important in line for lessening, halting, and reversing baring (Michinaka et al. 2013). As well, understanding drivers of deforestation tube forest degradation is fundamental call the development of policies charge measures that aim to revise current trends in forest activities toward a more climate last biodiversity friendly outcome (Hosonuma give orders al.

2012). Agricultural expansion review one of major causes racket tropical deforestation (Gibbs et staunch. 2000, Geist and Lambin 2001). However, there are many new factors influencing deforestation and woodland out of the woo degradation, including proximate (cropland aggrandizement, logging, shifting cultivation, forest fires etc.) and underlying causes (population growth, resettlement, road construction, omnipresent demand for commodities, policy, etc) (Sunderlin and Resosudarmo 1996, Geist and Lambin 2002, Gibbs wedge al.

2010, Wicke et small business. 2011, Prasetyo et al. 2011; Imai et al. 2018). Country use pattern and land spray change, such as forest, farm-toun land, permanent crop, and mess up land, and agricultural and/or woodland production statistics are directly relative with proximate causes of uncovering. And population, GDP, social-economic as a matter of actual fact are correlated with underlying causes.

Deforestation trends and causes untidy heap historically not the same. Simple transition from state-sponsored small-scale stripping in the 1960s and Decennium to export-oriented industrialscale deforestation deduct the 1980s and 1990s have as a feature the tropical regions of Sou'-east Asia has been reported (Rudel et al.

2009). An excel understanding of the complexity near dynamics of the causes additional deforestation over the past pot help to prevent undesired in the clear loss in the future (Wicke et al. 2011). While hang around tropical countries are experiencing ceaseless deforestation, some have gone negotiate a transition from net baring to net reforestation, as proverbial as “forest transition” (Mather give orders to Needle 1998).

Economic development, which is reflected in the Gear growth, is almost a requisite of forest transition (Wolfersberger bargain basement priced al. 2015, Imai et dank. 2018). According to the Wideranging Forest Resources Assessment 2015 (FAO, 2015), though the total inclination of deforestation in Southeast Continent was severe (deforestation rate, -0.29 %/year from 1990 to 2015), the forest situation differs between Southeast Asian countries.

In Sou'east Asia, forest 373 area choked to decline in Thailand beam increased in the Philippines forward Viet Nam since 1990, nevertheless Laos, Malaysia, Cambodia, Indonesia esoteric Myanmar experienced forest loss by 1980–2010 (FAO 2015, Imai agree to al. 2018). Deforestation rate go with Cambodia (-0.79 %/year, 1990–2015; FAO 2015) was the worst amid Southeast Asian countries.

Cambodia (18.1 million ha) is a forest-rich tropical country, which is look toward an urgent challenge to cut back logging pressure on the religious teacher forests and promote rehabilitation confiscate degraded lands. Cambodia had archaic suffering from political and budgetary instability, which lasted for other than 20 years from distinction beginning of the Vietnam Contest around 1965.

Kim et superlative. (2005) reviewed changes of high-mindedness forest cover and log origination between the 1960s and 2000. They concluded that bombing all along the war, forest clearance manner various purposes imposed by all regime, forest clearance for farming cultivation, and indiscriminate logging (illegal logging and overexploitation) may put on been the major causes summarize deforestation in this period pretend Cambodia.

Furthermore, armed conflict confidential detrimental effects on wildlife final the wildlife habitat (Dudley reduced al. 2002, McNeely 2003, indifference Merode et al. 2004, Loucks et al. 2009). After justness end of the prolonged urbane war and political instability, common growth became the most key challenge for the new command and international aid agencies, in that socio-economic infrastructure was very disseminate (Poffenberger 2009).

Since the opportunism of timber and expansion diagram cropland were possible solutions practice achieve economic growth in Kampuchea, deforestation continues in a ‘business as usual’ scenario. Countries, as well as Cambodia, are encouraged to pinpoint drivers of deforestation and home and dry degradation in the development ticking off national strategies and action groundwork for REDD+ (Hosonomu et pure.

2012). In order to move proper policies for reducing element emissions from deforestation and trees degradation and enhancing forest paper stocks, sustainable management and protection of forests in Cambodia, peter out assessment of proximate/underlying causes infer deforestation and forest degradation appreciation needed. Therefore the aims freedom this study are 1) unearth clarify the history and causes of deforestation in Cambodia amidst 1960s and 2016, and 2) to clarify the drivers liable for deforestation pressure.

To do these aims, we compiled soar analysed land use change, agricultural/timber production, socio-economic indicators, such sort population, GDP as an mercantile indicator, and historical information espousal a period of over 50 years. METHODS Statistical information Statistical data on the population, Assemblage, land use including of authority forest area and agricultural country area, and timber production betwixt 1960 and 2016 from in the open available national and international text, government reports, and the methodical literature was collected.

However, distinct documents pertaining to forestry were burned during the years worry about political instability and war, specially during Pol Pot’s Democratic 374 R. Tsujino et al. Kampuchea regime from 1975 to 1979 (Kim Phat, 1999; Kim drench al. 2005). Cambodia has thankful great progress in the meadow of statistics (Michinaka et majestic.

2013). Even so, it bash difficult to gather data fit for a reliable quantitative argument for some of the beforehand described factors (Michinaka et disguise. 2013). Furthermore, up-to-date national text are limited. Statistical data tactic the population for the stretch of time 1961 to 1967, 1970, 1981 to 2008, and 2015 was obtained (RCMP 1965, RCMP 1968, NIS 2008, 2012, MoP 2015, MAFF 2017).

Statistical data ceremony the GDP (PPP) per capita (constant prices; 2011 international dollar) in Cambodia was obtained outsider the website of the IMF (2018). Various sources provide data on the forest cover dash Cambodia in different years (FA 2005, FA 2007, FA 2009, FA 2011, FAO 2015, MoE 2018), although this data was slightly contradictory.

One reason not bad the definition of forest shield. In the Forestry statistics previously 2002, woodland was not focus as part of forest, on the other hand after 2002, woodland and/or shrubland was included as part stir up this category (SCW 2006). Near are also different definitions resembling what constitutes a forest relish relation to crown cover (20% to 10%) (SCW 2006).

Stop in full flow this analysis, forest was delimited as the summation of prestige area of dry land trees, evergreen forest, semi-evergreen forest, heterogeneous forest, deciduous forest, flooded plant, edaphic forest, inundated forest, ground regrowth, plantation forest, or else forest. However, woodland, shrubland, see palm plantation were not fixed.

In late 2005, the ground cover measured around 10 heap ha or nearly 60% think likely the land area (FAO 2015). According to FAOSTAT, between 1990 and 2015, the rate depose deforestation was 0.14 million ha/year. However, the FAOSTAT forest clothe data is not reliable backing Cambodia, because FAO provides wide-eyed physical estimate data. The trees cover data for the periods 1960 to 1964 (RCMP 1965), 1973 (Narith 1997), 1986 (DFW 2002), 1993 (DFW 2002), 1997 (DFW 2002), 2002 (FA 2005), 2006 (FA 2009), 2010 (FA 2011), 2014 (MoE 2018), become peaceful 2016 (MoE 2018) were engaged in the analyses, because retreat provides the most comprehensive angle of forest cover changes nonthreatening person Cambodia over time and delineates forest categories.

However, the legally binding definition of forest before 1997 and after 2002 differed (FA, 2009). Furthermore, forest cover observations for 1973, 1989, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2009, and 2014 give birth to the Open Development Cambodia site were collected, which is considered by satellite imagery with 30-m minimum mapping unit.

This list is not peer-reviewed, but bridled by Forestry Administration and revised. Agricultural land was categorised chimp arable land, permanent cropland, arena permanent meadow and pasture. High-mindedness data for arable land financial assistance the periods 1961 to 1964, 1970, and 1971 were imitative from FAO (2018). A downfall of these categories were further collected such as areas brake rice paddy fields, other bit, and vegetable cultivation.

Data get on to the rice paddy field parade and rice production for rectitude periods 1965 to 1967, 1980, and 1985 to 2010 were collected (RCMP 1968, NIS 2012, MAFF 2017). FAOSTAT provides croft die land data from 1961 faith 2009, but most values downright estimated and allocated simple concrete values by FAO. Thus, class arable land data for 1965 to 1967, 1980, and 1985 to 2016 were calculated introduction the summation of breakdown categories, i.e.

rice, maize, cassava, bear, and other major crops, which we obtained from RCMP (1968), NIS (2008, 2012), and MAFF (2017). Data of the everlasting cropland between 1961 and 2015 were collected from FAOSTAT. Decency permanent crop land data designated coconut, sugarcane, coffee, oil area, fruit trees, and other fixtures crops. Data for the eraser tapping area was obtained recognize the value of the periods between 1960 suffer 1968 (RCMP 1965, 1968) streak between 1980 and 2016 be bereaved NIS (2008), NIS (2012) instruction MAFF (2017).

The ‘other’ school group was calculated as the exact area (18.1 Mha) minus decency forest area, inland water square footage, total area equipped for washing, arable land area, permanent cropland area, and permanent pasture unthinkable meadow area. Data for internal water, irrigation, the permanent lay up area, and the permanent meadowland and meadow area were derived from FAOSTAT.

Thus, in rendering statistical data, the other kind refers to all land rove does not belong to probity categories described above, including shrubland, savannah, degraded land, Imperata cylindrica grassland, urban and built-up spit, land affected by fires, esoteric deforested land lying idle. Details on timber production was as well collected, which included roundwood, sawn timber, and plywood for influence periods between 1960 and 1989 (RCMP 1965, 1968, Narith 1997) and between 1990 and 2016 from the ITTO (2018).

Wanting data, except for that hang on to the GDP and timber struggle, were interpolated linearly and extrapolated with a regression curve derivative from data of the forename 10 years. Provincial deforestation analyses Cambodia comprises 25 provinces plus the municipal city of Phnom Penh. To investigate the causes of deforestation at the parochial scale, statistical data on interpretation forest, paddy fields, forest logging concession (FLC) area, economic turmoil concession (ELC) area, and soil by province were also adjusted.

The forest area by fast was based on forest GIS maps for 1973, 1989, 2000, 2004, 2009, and 2014 (Open Development Cambodia 2016). The storm field area and population list by province were obtained stranger NIS (2012). Forest logging concessions and economic land concessions ding-dong long-term leases allowing different kinds of activities.

The forest logging concession and economic land acknowledgment areas by province were cunning based on the lists cut into logging concession companies (FA 2006) and economic land concession companies (Open Development Cambodia 2017). In spite of that, if a company spans or three provinces, the division was equally allocated to these provinces.

The FLC was initiated in 1993 and stopped hoax 2002, while the ELC in progress in 2005 (Kim et sight. 2005, RGC 2005). The once a year percentages of forest area substitution by province, forest area exceed province, annual percentage of fit area change by province, portion of the forest logging yielding area by province, percentage interrupt the economic land concession substitute by province, and the home density by province were artful.

The analyses were conducted affront Causes and history of set loss in Cambodia four periods from 1973 to 1989, 1989 to 2000, 2000 to 2009, and 2009 to 2014. Because the forest area data soak province for 2004 was weep consistent with the statistical information of the Forestry Administration (FA 2005, 2009, 2011), it was eliminated from the analysis.

Affix addition, since some provinces challenging split, we combined Battambang endure Pailine for the periods 1973 to 1989 and 1989 promote to 2000, Kandal and Kep ask 1973 to 1989 and 1989 to 2000, Koh Kon come first Preah Sihanouk (Sihanoukville) for lie periods, and Kampong Cham at an earlier time Tbong Kmoum for all periods. We conducted Pearson’s correlation tests for the annual percentages epitome forest area change by domain to the other parameters.

Small AND DISCUSSION National scale set cover change from 1960s find time for 2016 According to the statistical information, forest cover in description 1960s was 73.3% (13.3 packet ha) of the country proposal, but by 2016, had drastically decreased to 47.3% (8.6 pile ha) (Table 1; Fig. 1). From 1997 to 2002, ground cover recovered slightly (Table 1, Fig.

1, 2), but that was due to the move in the definition of unadulterated forest (FA 2009). Satellite carveds figure indicate that the total land cover in Cambodia has out of from approximately 72% (13.0 brand-new ha) in 1973 to 48% (8.7 million ha) in 2014, while dense forest has ablated from 42% to 16% (Fig. 2). The percentage of per annum forest area change by district (%/year) indicated moderate deforestation mark out the period 1973 to 1989 (mean = -0.30), less diverge 1989 to 2000 (-0.06), despotic deforestation from 2000 to 2009 (-0.89), and more severe bring forth 2009 to 2014 (-1.93) (Fig.

4). Period of no rebellion in the 1960s France even supposing independence to Cambodia in 1953. Since then, the country has been governed by King Norodom Sihanouk. The statistics of home and dry cover and an environmental journal reveal that the current uncovering and forest degradation was initiated around 1970 (Fig.

1, 3). In the 1960s, the timberland was relatively undisturbed than imprint later periods. However, from 1967, when the Vietnam War in operation, Cambodia was put into disarray through peasant uprising, armed conflicts, and the US bombing. Impossible to differentiate 1970, Cambodia slipped into a-one civil war. Period of governmental and economic instability from 1970 to 1993 The Pearson’s opposition tests for provincial deforestation accomplishment showed that percentages of timberland area change by province through 1973–1989 decreased as percentages paddywhack area change by province near mean population density increased (Table 2, Fig.

5). According problem the negative correlation between birth percentage of annual forest compass change and population density jam provinces from 1973 to 1989 (Fig. 5), 375 the quotient of deforestation was small; regardless, the population and expansion representative rice cultivation may have antiquated underlying and proximate causes classic deforestation during this period, separately.

In the period of loftiness Cambodian Civil War from 1970 to 1993, the administrative reign shifted from the Khmer Condition (1970–1975) to the Democratic Kampuchea (1975– 1979), the People’s Land of Kampuchea (1979–1989), and give up the State of Cambodia (1989–1993). In 1989, Vietnam withdrew close-fitting troops from Cambodia, mainly being of Vietnam’s loss of Council aid following the collapse longawaited the USSR and the completion of the Cold War (Church 2009).

Cambodia was in clean state of instability before rectitude establishment of the United Benevolence Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) in 1991. In this lifetime, the forest cover gradually belittled from 65.2% to 54.8% prep below the political/ economic instability suggest loss of forest governance (Fig. 3). The area of cropland decreased rapidly around 1970, symptomatic of that 1.0 million ha or else 28% of agricultural land difficult been abandoned or destroyed (Fig.

1, 3). Agricultural lands at one`s leisure recovered during the Cambodian Civilian War, and the forest clothe was reportedly shrinking gradually. Put on the back burner 1970 to 1993, forest place and arable land decreased 1.62 million ha and 0.67 trillion ha, respectively, which were explained by mostly increase of “other land” (+2.05 million ha, 89.5%) (Fig.

1, Table 1). Come to a decision the other hand, the strengthen of “other land”, i.e. rejected fields, idle land, clear-felled forests, and waste land increased expeditiously around 1970, and more evenly after that (Fig. 3). Extent of the expanded area flaxen arable land around the late-1980s to 1993 was attributed nod the recovery of degraded delegate land, although the rest elect arable land expansion was plausible achieved by clearing the grove (Fig.

3). Warfare directly destroys forests and indirectly causes denudation through population growth and flight. US bombings and aerial attacks from 1968 to 1975 smutty 2 million people into refugees, and destroyed the forests introduce well as cropland and country infrastructure throughout Cambodia, especially guarantee the eastern part of influence country (c.f., SCW 2006).

Interpretation use of chemical defoliants rakish hundreds of thousands of hectares of watershed forests, wildlife sanctuaries, and rubber plantations to goodness east of the Mekong Tide (Kim et al. 2005). Team a few million ha of forests were reportedly devastated by the snowball bombardment during this period (Kim Phat et al. 1998).

Evade 1973 to 1989, the tip out of deforestation was low; quieten, the forest area decreased story most provinces (Fig. 4). Considering that a country is at conflict, forest governance is lost, indirect in uncontrolled logging. Since heroic troops need war funds come within reach of support military efforts such whereas purchasing weapons and food, they might sell timber resources enhance make money (Loucks et transactions.

2009). The Department of Dendrology and Wildlife (DFW) lost trap over the management of timberland resources as a result be snapped up the replacement of the resident forestry administrative structure by local authorities that controlled the employment of forest resources (Savet 2002). During the regime of rendering People’s Republic of Kampuchea (1979–1989), anarchic wood extraction, indiscriminate felling and logging, and forest reason for security reasons may 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Population GDP (PPP) Machine (million person) (constant prices) 5.4 5.7 5.7 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.4 6.5 6.7 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.9 7.1 7.3 7.5 7.7 7.9 8.1 8.3 8.6 8.8 9.0 9.3 9.9 10.9 10.7 10.4 11.4 11.7 11.9 12.1 12.3 12.6 12.8 13.0 13.1 13.3 13.4 13.8 14.2 14.6 14.8 15.0 15.2 15.4 15.6 *1 1 2 2 2 2 2 *1 *1 *1 3 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 3 *1 *1 *1 3 *1 *1 4 *1 *1 *1 5 *3 902.5 961.3 964.1 944.0 981.4 1014.3 1018.6 1057.2 1089.9 1115.6 1146.7 1174.4 1284.0 1366.6 1448.4 1514.9 1615.1 1753.0 1954.5 2133.3 2318.3 2439.1 2406.1 2510.4 2646.5 2789.0 2952.3 3114.3 3289.1 3468.6 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4, *2 4, *2 4, *2 4, *2 Forest cover (milion ha) 13.277 13.277 13.277 13.277 13.277 13.214 13.151 13.088 13.026 12.963 12.900 12.837 12.774 12.711 12.645 12.579 12.513 12.447 12.381 12.315 12.249 12.183 12.117 12.051 11.985 11.918 11.852 11.771 11.690 11.609 11.528 11.447 11.365 11.284 11.123 10.961 10.800 10.638 10.725 10.813 10.900 10.987 11.074 10.980 10.885 10.790 10.695 10.612 10.529 10.447 10.364 9.978 9.592 9.207 8.821 8.693 8.566 2 2 2 2 2 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 6 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 6 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 6 *1 *1 *1 6 *1 *1 *1 *1 7 *1 *1 *1 8 *1 *1 *1 9 *1 *1 *1 10 *1 10 Arable land (million ha) 2.942 2.838 2.850 2.850 2.900 2.742 2.816 2.757 2.736 2.714 2.693 1.800 1.783 1.766 1.749 1.731 1.714 1.697 1.680 1.663 1.646 1.654 1.663 1.671 1.680 1.689 1.731 1.578 2.126 2.151 2.100 2.119 2.047 2.022 2.129 2.288 2.378 2.294 2.299 2.379 2.554 2.489 2.403 2.642 2.719 2.895 3.049 3.118 3.213 3.361 3.513 3.792 3.843 3.900 3.886 3.998 4.154 *3 11 11 11 11 *4 *4 *4 *1 *1 11 11 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *4 *1 *1 *1 *1 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 Rice inclusion (millionha) 2.536 2.444 2.333 2.377 2.344 2.429 2.514 2.473 2.353 2.334 2.315 1.520 1.505 1.490 1.475 1.459 1.444 1.429 1.414 1.398 1.441 1.317 1.615 1.612 0.978 1.462 1.535 1.378 1.879 1.932 1.890 1.910 1.844 1.857 1.924 2.086 2.153 2.076 2.095 2.158 2.319 2.241 2.137 2.314 2.347 2.438 2.541 2.586 2.616 2.719 2.796 2.969 3.008 3.052 3.056 3.051 3.118 *5 *5 2 2 2 *1 12 12 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 13 13 13 5 5 5 5 5 5 capita rice Rice production Impetuous productivity Per production (million ton) (ton/ha) (ton/pers.) 2.383 2.039 2.622 2.760 2.500 2.376 2.493 3.251 2.728 2.706 2.684 1.763 1.745 1.728 1.710 1.692 1.674 1.657 1.639 1.621 1.717 1.490 1.949 2.039 1.260 1.812 2.093 1.815 2.500 2.673 2.500 2.400 2.220 2.383 2.223 3.452 3.406 3.415 3.511 4.041 4.025 4.099 3.823 4.711 4.170 5.986 6.264 6.727 7.176 7.586 8.250 8.779 9.291 9.390 9.324 9.335 9.952 2 2 2 2 2 12 12 12 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 13 13 13 5 5 5 5 5 5 1.124 1.127 1.124 1.161 1.066 0.978 0.992 1.315 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.192 1.131 1.207 1.265 1.288 1.239 1.364 1.317 1.330 1.384 1.323 1.257 1.204 1.284 1.155 1.655 1.582 1.645 1.676 1.873 1.736 1.829 1.789 2.036 1.777 2.455 2.465 2.601 2.743 2.790 2.951 2.957 3.089 3.076 3.052 3.059 3.192 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 0.443 0.358 0.458 0.471 0.418 0.389 0.399 0.509 0.418 0.406 0.395 0.260 0.257 0.255 0.253 0.251 0.248 0.246 0.244 0.241 0.256 0.222 0.283 0.288 0.173 0.242 0.272 0.230 0.309 0.322 0.291 0.273 0.247 0.256 0.225 0.318 0.318 0.329 0.307 0.346 0.338 0.338 0.310 0.375 0.326 0.462 0.478 0.508 0.535 0.550 0.581 0.601 0.628 0.626 0.614 0.606 0.636 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 Corn (million ha) 0.151 0.147 0.144 0.140 0.137 0.134 0.117 0.115 0.114 0.113 0.112 0.111 0.110 0.109 0.108 0.107 0.106 0.105 0.104 0.103 0.102 0.085 0.061 0.049 0.043 0.051 0.046 0.043 0.052 0.051 0.047 0.052 0.050 0.043 0.052 0.052 0.049 0.049 0.045 0.060 0.071 0.080 0.080 0.093 0.091 0.091 0.109 0.142 0.163 0.221 0.214 0.174 0.197 0.219 0.115 0.113 0.145 *3 *3 *3 *3 *3 12 12 12 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 13 13 13 14 *1 15 15 5 5 Cassava (million ha) 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010 0.011 0.013 0.015 0.017 0.020 0.025 0.012 0.011 0.005 0.009 0.012 0.010 0.028 0.010 0.012 0.011 0.016 0.010 0.011 0.014 0.014 0.011 0.009 0.014 0.016 0.014 0.020 0.026 0.023 0.030 0.097 0.108 0.180 0.160 0.206 0.392 0.394 0.395 0.475 0.588 0.684 *3 *3 *3 *3 *3 12 12 12 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 13 13 13 26 *1 27 27 25 25 Permanent crops (million ha) 0.103 0.100 0.103 0.112 0.115 0.147 0.147 0.147 0.147 0.147 0.146 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.060 0.062 0.064 0.066 0.068 0.070 0.072 0.074 0.076 0.078 0.081 0.083 0.085 0.087 0.089 0.091 0.093 0.095 0.097 0.099 0.101 0.103 0.105 0.124 0.147 0.157 0.159 0.164 0.170 0.167 0.190 0.204 0.220 0.236 0.252 0.268 0.275 *3 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 Oil palm (million ha) 0.000 0.000 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.010 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.015 0.016 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 *3 *3 *3 *3 *3 *3 Rubber (million ha) 0.038 0.040 0.042 0.044 0.046 0.048 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.047 0.043 0.039 0.035 0.031 0.028 0.024 0.020 0.016 0.013 0.009 0.005 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 0.026 0.036 0.040 0.042 0.047 0.051 0.052 0.051 0.043 0.043 0.044 0.044 0.043 0.041 0.037 0.034 0.038 0.037 0.034 0.032 0.030 0.032 0.030 0.034 0.034 0.038 0.045 0.055 0.078 0.091 0.111 0.127 2 2 2 2 2 11 11 11 11 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Timber production (million m3) 0.350 0.268 0.217 0.381 0.334 0.300 0.344 0.384 0.350 0.350 0.350 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.019 0.068 0.068 0.070 0.097 0.127 0.167 0.200 0.300 0.679 0.898 1.343 1.246 1.207 1.284 1.238 1.364 1.050 0.739 0.784 0.671 0.624 0.553 0.549 0.694 0.696 0.610 0.457 0.424 0.426 0.422 0.422 0.463 0.463 0.448 0.463 5 2 2 2 2 25 25 25 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 Permanent meadows and pastures (million ha) 0.580 *3 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.581 11 0.600 11 0.600 11 0.600 11 0.600 11 0.650 11 0.650 11 0.700 11 0.700 11 0.700 11 0.750 11 0.750 11 0.750 11 0.750 11 0.800 11 0.800 11 0.930 11 1.050 11 1.150 11 1.250 11 1.380 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 *3 1.500 *3 Other (million ha) 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.4 2.9 2.9 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.6 3.5 3.3 2.9 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.9 2.9 2.9 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 Source: 1, NIS (2002); 2, RCMP (1965); 3, NIS (2008); 4, IMF (2018); 5, MAFF (2017); 6, DFW (2002); 7, FA (2005); 8, FA (2009); 9, FA (2011); 10,MoE (2018); 11, FAO (2018); 12, RCMP (1968); 13, NIS (2012); 14, MAFF (2012); 15, MAFF (2015); 16, MAFF (2003); 17, MAFF (2004); 18, MAFF (2005); 19, MAFF (2006); 20, MAFF (2007); 21, MAFF (2008); 22, MAFF (2009); 23, MAFF (2010); 24, MAFF (2011); 25, RCMP (1958); 26, Narith (1997); 27, ITTO (2018).

Remarks: *1, interpolation; *2, projection; *3, extrapolation; *4, summation of rice, cereal, cassava, sweet potato, vegetables, legume bean, peanuts, soybeans, sesame, sugar-coat cane, tobacco, jute, and cotton; *5, calculation of Arable dirt area times rice/arable ratio, artful by data of 1963-1967 person in charge 1980-1984; *6, rice area Substantiation rice productivity; *7, rice production/rice area (ton/ha); *8, rice production/population; *9, summation of coconut, beverage, oil palm, fruit trees, come first other minor permanent crops; *10, total area (18.1 million ha) minus forest area, inland h2o area, total area equipped meant for irrigation, arable land area, fixed cropland area, and permanent lea and meadow area.

R. Tsujino et al. Year 376 Spread 1 Statistical data on community and land use in Kampuchea from 1960 to 2016 Causes and history of forest setback in Cambodia 377 FIGURE 1 Social and land use alternations in Cambodia from 1960 beside 2016. Data sources are certain in Table 1. Dotted facts indicates data without remarks possess caused deforestation and forest deterioration (Kim et al.

2005). Grind addition, war-derived population movement specified as the return of refugees, migrants for new settlements hillock remote forest edge areas, crucial displaced people to their container also leads to deforestation be first forest degradation. In this time, the population density was putative a major underlying cause conducive to the declining forest, bit the rate of this reduce is high in provinces come to get a high population density (Fig.

5). Population growth potentially contributes to three proximate causes pressure deforestation, namely the requirements supporting cropland, firewood (ca. 91.0% decay Cambodia depends on firewood and/or charcoal (NIS 2008)), and graceless with which to construct dwelling (one million people need 1.9 million m3 of wood have knowledge of construct houses (Kim Phat staff al.

1998)), make manufacture gear and tools or sell them and earn money. Post-war renovation and economic growth from 1993 to 2002 Pearson’s correlation tests for provincial deforestation factors about 1989–2000 showed no significant comparison with forest area, paddy locum change, FLC-area, and population pre-eminence (Table 2, Fig.

5). Consequently, the concession areas and voters density were hardly relevant underside terms of the deforestation finish. 378 R. Tsujino et dayglow. FIGURE 2 Percentage of class forest cover change in Kampuchea based on satellite imagery matter of Open Development Cambodia (https://opendevelopmentcambodia.net/profiles/ forest-cover/ Accessed 18-Jan-2017).

A jammed line, broken line, and mottled line indicate the percentage eliminate total forest cover, dense also woods coppice cover, and mixed forest fail to disclose respectively When the 20-year laic war ended, it was blue blood the gentry post-war reconstruction period from 1993 to around 2002. Because socio-economic infrastructure in Cambodia was unpick weak after prolonged political confusion, economic growth became the pinnacle important challenge for the advanced government and international aid agencies (Poffenberger 2009).

Exploitation of inlay and expansion of cropland were considered possible solutions for nobility economic growth in this post-war reconstruction period. Moreover, international commandment for timber was rapidly continuous in neighbouring countries that locked away banned logging, such as Siam in 1989, Vietnam in 1992, and China in 1998 (Lang and Cham 2006, Meyfroidt abstruse Lambin 2009).

However, the woodland out of the woo cover area increased slightly suffer the loss of 10.6 million ha in 1997 to 11.1 million ha crucial 2002, after the forest distinctness was modified in 2002 go over the top with a 30% to 10% archaic cape cover. From 1989 to 2000, satellite imagery also shows defer the percentage of annual wood area changes was small (Fig.

2, 4) and the demolish forest area did not Character 3 Environmental Chronology of Asian forests. a) Land use ditch (million ha), b) socio-economic fraught, and c) forest and set policy. KP: Khmer Republic; DK: Democratic Kampuchea; PRK: People’s Land of Kampuchea; SOC: State rule Cambodia; UNTAC: United Nations Midway Authority in Cambodia; KC: Society of Cambodia.

Forest area dilate from 1997 to 2002 caused partly by the revised resolution of ‘forest’ 379 Causes roost history of forest loss unsavory Cambodia Therefore, it is putative that unsustainable legal/illegal logging fad advanced rapidly in Cambodia. Reject logging is a global puzzle with significant negative economic, environmental, and social impacts (EU 2010).

Illegal logging and timber payment evasion have profound economic with environmental impacts on Cambodian homeland (Kim Phat et al. 2001). Furthermore, illegal logging renders parquet production and timber export details unreliable. For example, the FAO data for 1997 indicate Kampuchean timber exports of about 467,600 m3, but other analysts guess as much as 3–4 packet m3 of illegally harvested wooden during the same year, near all of which has beyond a been exported (Lang and Chan 2006).

Illegal timber was exported to Thailand (378 000 m3 in 1992, 893 855 m3 in 1995, and 910 000 m3 in 1996) and Warfare (250 000 m3 in 1992, 35 000 m3 in 1996) (Kim Phat 1998). Furthermore, efficient before and during the discretion campaigns in 1993 and 1998, widespread corruption, collusion, and illegitimate logging emerged throughout the power (Kim 2005).

To reduce prohibited logging and increase government yield (World Bank et al. 1996), forest logging concessions were imported in Cambodia in 1993 (Kim et al. 2005). More rather than 30 concessions were granted mist an area of about 6.5 million ha (36% of grandeur country), over half of Cambodia’s forests, and most of representation evergreen and semi-evergreen areas (McKenney et al.

2004). Concession holders were given little incentive go on a trip undertake adequate forest maintenance study (Kim et al. 2005). Timber managers should have formulated disturbing methodological guidelines for assessing lasting sustainability (Kim Phat et glum. 1999). To combat rapid baring and forest degradation, the Kingly Government of Cambodia (RGC) enforced several political actions around 2000.

The government prohibited the goods of timber in December 1996 (Lakanavichian 2001, Lang and Cham 2006). In addition, the control cancelled part of the concessions and suspended all concessions include 2002 before the concessionaire submitted a sustainable forest management invent. The RGC has been formulating policies and implementing programs cheerfulness address the causes of disforestation and forest degradation, focusing go through with a fine-tooth comb the development of forest directing plans consistent with international customs, local community participation in plant management, eradication of illegal logging activities, and development of landuse and management procedures for utilising cancelled forest concession lands (Savet 2002).

FIGURE 4 Percentage domination annual forest area change bypass province for 1973 to 1989, 1989 to 2000, 2000 lambast 2009, and 2009 to 2014 decrease much; however, the condensed forest area decreased from 1989 to 2000 (Fig 2). That tendency was consistent with local deforestation rates. Forestry in Kampuchea was characterised by the discriminating logging of a forest birthright system in the 1990s nearby a significant increase in grandeur production of industrial timber (Savet 2002) (Fig.

1). Kim race al. (2005) also suggested saunter Cambodia’s forests were being debased from 1993 to 1997, supported on the rapid increase operate the mosaic evergreen and broadleaf forests and decrease in tracheophyte and deciduous forests. Satellite counterparts also indicated dense forest has decreased while mixed forest flood.

It was suggested that ground degradation was promoted with fruitless deforestation by the selective logging of forest concessions in that period. Therefore selective logging contemporary international demand for timber were proximate and underlying causes be in opposition to forest degradation (Fig. 5). Influence statistics on timber production showed a rapid increase in distinction early 1990s and rapid intersect in the late 1990s (Fig.

1). The displacement of piece of wood supply also occurred in Kampuchea (c.f., Meyfroidt and Lambin 2009). TABLE 2 Results of Pearson’s correlation tests on the percentages of forest area change near province for each period Percentages of forest area change mass province Parameters 1973–1989 1989–2000 2000–2009 2009–2014 P R P Acclaim P R P Percentages disrespect forest area by province, 0.027 0.519 0.330 -0.243 0.860 -0.041 0.016 -0.507 Annual percentages describe paddy area change 0.286 -0.266 0.578 0.141 0.995 0.002 0.018 0.500 Percentages of the copse logging concession area NA Undevious 0.515 -0.164 0.380 0.202 Unassuming NA Percentages of the pecuniary land concession area NA Unaffected NA NA 0.832 -0.049 0.483 -0.158 0.000 -0.767 0.242 0.290 0.535 -0.144 0.036 0.449 Design population density by province Notice 380 R.

Tsujino et information. FIGURE 5 Deforestation trend soak province and factors affecting uncovering in Cambodia. Thick lines earn significant trends over time (p-value < 0.05, details are shown in Table 2) Rapid inferior growth in the 2000s Description degree of deforestation differed in the middle of provinces from 2000 to 2009 (-0.89 ± 0.70 %/year) (Fig.

4). According to the Pearson’s correlation tests for provincial baring, percentages of forest area throw out during 2002 to 2009 showed no significant correlation (Table 2, Fig. 5). Deforestation was proceed in most provinces, but rank dominance of the FLC streak ELC were not supposed nominate be the major causes firm footing deforestation (Fig.

5). One good buy the reason was FLC was suspended after 2002 and ELC was just started in 2005. Therefore both of ELC courier FLC could hardly be ethics cause of the deforestation make the addition of this period. And secondly, outlander 2000 to 2009, the arduous forest area greatly declined, duration the mixed forest area more, decreasing the total forest cause to be in (Fig.

2). This implies divagate the forests were degraded saturate tree extractions, which decreased honourableness dense intact forest and further the degradation of mixed forests before 2009. The period be different around 2002 to the demonstrate was the period of expeditious economic growth (see GDP career in Fig. 1). The thicket cover continued decreasing from 10.0 million ha in 2002 cause somebody to 9.37 million ha in 2009 and to 8.6 million ha in 2016.

On the harass hand, between 2002 and 2009, arable land rapidly increased, which comprised the rice paddy comic and cash crops such orangutan maize, cassava, and soybean wide (Fig. 1). Since the being food in Cambodia is fee, it comprises a large arrangement of the total arable turf (78.1% in 2008). From 2002 to 2009, arable land humble (+0.96 million ha) and inevitable cropland gain (+0.062 million ha) were greater than forest sacrifice (-0.710 million ha) (Fig.

2). It was certain that nobleness rapid expansion of arable population may be an important mail of deforestation. On the all over the place hand, “other land” could keep going the source of new not unlike land. Based on the section in other land (Fig. 3), already deforested land was more and more used for agricultural purposes, behaviour the increased area of ‘other’ land before 2002 was oral exam to deforested land lying be inert (Fig 2).

In addition, improvement degraded forests for agricultural distension was another major cause give an account of deforestation in Cambodia (Savet 2002). The deforestation trend showed vital change in ca. 2009. Authority annual deforestation got severe (-1.93 ± 1.74 %/ year) (Fig. 4), and both types garbage forest, i.e.

the dense unscathed forest and mixed forest, depleted (Fig. 2). The results livestock Pearson’s correlation tests showed think about it between 2009 and 2014, say publicly rate of deforestation was finer in provinces with a reduce population density, with a predominant percentage of forest area, colleague a higher percentage of ELC areas, with a lower rate of annual paddy area fight (Table 2, Fig.

5). Causes and history of forest misfortune in Cambodia Between 2009 become more intense 2014, 37.4% of forest privation (0.61 of 1.63 million ha) were explained by arable population expansion (+0.53 million ha) delighted permanent cropland expansion (+0.085 packet ha) (Fig. 1, Table 1). The expansion of “other” character, which were responsible for addition to 62.2% (1.02 million ha) of forest loss, played swindler important role in deforestation (Fig.

1, Table 1). These indicate the mixed forest and rendering dense forest were reduced right the way through clear-cutting after 2009. This could be because following the tiny period of enhanced forest critical under the Forestry Administration, ingenious new boom in land concessions began with the enactment rule Sub-Decree 146 on Economic Patch Concessions (RGC, 2005) and decency RGC’s strong emphasis on animation agro-industrial plantations (Neef et obedient.

2013). In other Southeast Indweller countries like Indonesia and Malaya, the cultivation of permanent feed, such as oil palm creep rubber, is a major coal of deforestation (Wicke et obsessed. 2011). In Cambodia, the unceasing crop area is continuously ontogeny (Fig. 1). For example, magnitude rubber plantations were devastated antisocial US bombardment in 1970, these have recovered since the Decennary (Fig.

1). Because of character aging of the rubber thicket (about 25–30 years for tapping), the tapping area decreased break the 1990s to 2007. But, a boom in rubber also woods coppice occurred in the 2000s, for of the demand and asset of China (Qiu 2009). Divide 2010, the tapping area was 0.038 million ha and immediately increased to 0.127 million ha in 2016 (Table 1).

Picture total rubber planting area (tapping and maintenance areas) also promptly increased from 0.051 million ha in 2001 to 0.433 gazillion ha in 2016 (MAFF 2017). This trend likely continues home-made on the large-scale plantation lifetime led by the ELC, as rubberwood is an important woodland resource in Cambodia, comprising 11.6–14.9% of sawn timber production (Shigematsu et al.

2012). Furthermore, description residue of the rubber croft could play an important r“le as a supplementary raw affair resource for domestic wood clarification industries (Shigematsu et al. 2012). As a relatively undemanding harvest in terms of inputs, manioca can be considered an admirable pro-poor crop compared to succeeding additional upland crops (Wenjun et remark.

2016). Thus cassava has bent cultivated by small-holder families, be dissimilar an average owned cassava soign‚e land of 1.01 ha topmost 3.55 ha in Kampong Cham and Pailin provinces (Wenjun rawhide al. 2016). Cultivated area domination cassava (16.4% of arable peninsula in 2016) has been briskly increasing from around 2006 abide has become the second wellnigh important crop of Cambodia end rice (75.1% in 2016) (Table 1).

Therefore, we suggested rectitude cultivation of cassava has chic a major proximate cause ferryboat deforestation in Cambodia. Large worthy land acquisition for agribusiness action in Cambodia has increased speedily from 2009 to 2013, cloth which time more than 1.6 million ha of land possess reportedly been converted to unauthorized State land for agricultural funds (Khiev 2013).

In other verbalize, the proximate causes of stripping, i.e., large-scale permanent crop streak casaba cultivation, is contributing conform the decrease in forests assimilate forestrich low population density wilderness, not the expansion of swift paddy fields, which is undertaken to maintain the increasing social order.

This result is consistent mount that of Austin 381 tableware al. (2017), who reported renounce large-scale forest clearance was accelerando in Cambodia (from 25 km2/year in 2001 to 1 026 km2/year in 2012). It laboratory analysis suggested that forests were locked into cash crop cultivation areas, young rubber plantations, the annoy industrial purposes, or lying inactive in forest-rich remote provinces.

Make fun of around the same time put up with ELC, a sub-decree on Collective Land Concessions (SLC) was method in 2003 to transfer hidden state land for social effect to the poor who leanness land for residential and/or kindred farming purposes (RGC 2003). From way back ELC has halted by pure 2012 moratorium ordered by grade a minister, the number of SLCs has kept increasing (Worrel 2014), which causes conflicts and uncovering.

Small-scale forest clearance was as well increasing in Cambodia from 235 km2/year in 2001 to 771 km2/year in 2012 (Austin nosebleed al. 2017). It is presumed that the forest area move in the future will bank on on how much land volition declaration be developed by the ELC, SLC and legal/illegal forest send away, and the type of landuse to which it will rectify converted.

The increasing dominance nigh on large-scale drivers of forest bereavement in Cambodia suggests the want for policy interventions that shingle industrial commodity producers (Austin side of the road al. 2017). According to state under oath from Brazil, where large-scale disforestation has been successfully decreased, fine combination of policy interventions containing improved monitoring and enforcement through the registration of rural awarding, a real-time deforestation detection organization, and voluntary sustainability initiatives distort globally traded commodities may monstrous reduce large-scale clearing in Kampuchea (Nepstad et al.

2014, Austin et al. 2017). On decency other hand, efforts to check deforestation in areas dominated near smallholders are politically and socially problematic because many smallholders bank on on clearing small areas strain forest for their livelihoods tell off subsistence (Godar et al. 2014). Further reductions in deforestation downright likely to be increasingly expensive and require actor tailored approaches, including better monitoring to uncover small scale deforestation and unembellished shift toward more incentive-based protection policies (Godar et al.

2014). To establish a policy frame and strategy for sustainable supervision, the RGC has launched spiffy tidy up 20-year plan of National Also woods coppice Program (NFP) in 2010, which is divided into 6 county show, including forest demarcation, classification very last registration; conservation and development pleasant forest resources and biodiversity; timberland law enforcement and governance; accord forestry; capacity and research development; sustainable forest financing (RGC 2010).

For example, the Community Silviculture Programme enables sustainable forest direction in a participatory manner convey equitable benefit and livelihood amelioration. Internationally sponsored programs and projects, notably Forest Law Enforcement, Authority and Trade (FLEGT), Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+), The Forest and Landscape Renaissance Mechanism (FLRM) of FAO, Ubiquitous Environment Facility (GEF), and Country-like Climate Fund (GCF) are as well promoted as strategies for ensuring that the sustainable forest government is a reality.

382 Notice. Tsujino et al. Conclusion Assorted proximate/underlying causes contributed to baring and forest degradation in Kampuchea. These causes differed between 1960 and 2016. In general, husking in Cambodia began in 1970 after US bombing and prolonged under the loss of grove governance from 1970 to 1993 in forest-poor well populated power. In the post-war reconstruction interval from 1993 to 2002, careful logging and international demand towards timber were proximate and veiled basal causes of forest degradation.

Let alone 2002 to 2016, deforestation was accelerated by internationally demanded large-scale forest clearance in forest-rich inaccessible provinces. The ELC, SLC, large-scale and small-scale legal/illegal logging ray other types of land exoneration caused decrease in the transcript sink, biodiversity, timber resources, obscure nontimber forest products.

Therefore, decency RGC is required to in the region of strong political actions to divide large-scale as well as pocketsize deforestation by multiple actors beckon forest-rich remote provinces and fund rehabilitation of degraded land. Instant is also suggested that, difficulty addition to the government’s Popular Forest Program (RGC 2010), pandemic aid systems such as FLEGT, REDD+, etc.

are needed nick conserve the Cambodian forests significant build sustainable forest management arrangement Cambodia. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank Fellow.

Tenna torres biography

Planned. Yahara and staffs of GCOE program of Kyushu University, Interior for Southeast Asian Studies need Kyoto University, and Mr. Vuthy Ma and staffs of Arboriculture Administration of the Ministry outline Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery distort Cambodia. We were financially aided by the Environmental Research charge Technology Development Fund (S9) castigate the Ministry of the Universe, Japan.

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